G1: Changes in landscape and waterscape character

Short Description

The Council of Europe Landscape Convention defines landscape as ‘…an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action or interaction of natural and/or human factors’. Landscape character, therefore, includes not only natural physical features such as hills, forests, rivers and lakes, but also man-made features like buildings and transport infrastructure. It is made up of the characteristics of all these individual features on their own, and the way they fit together in a place.

This composite indicator describes changes in physical, visual, cultural and experiential attributes of landscape character in England. It uses the 159 National Character Areas (NCAs) as the underpinning spatial and analytical framework. Indicator components G1a and G1b assess the extent to which these changes contribute positively towards achieving the aspirational landscape outcomes described in the NCA Statements of Environmental Opportunity. These statements refer to any one of a range of opportunities outlined in each NCA profile produced by National England. Component G1c uses spatial analysis to show how 5 attributes of landscape character (positive visual, negative visual, experiential, cultural and access) are changing over time. A further measure, currently in development, will draw upon new questions added to Natural England’s People and Nature Survey to establish people’s perceptions about the character of their local landscape.

Readiness and links to data

This interim indicator presents a baseline assessment of changes to landscape character in England across the period 2015 to 2019 for components G1a and G1c. To assess the extent to which these changes are contributing positively towards achieving the outcomes described in the Statements of Environmental Opportunity, the statements across all NCAs have been distilled into 34 landscape objectives and NCAs with broadly similar character and pressures for change have been grouped into 18 landscape types that represent rural, urban and coastal landscapes. These indicator components are planned to be updated in 2026 with new data covering the period 2019 to 2024 (or nearest available data).

The interim indicator also presents results from existing published assessments of the influence of agri-environment schemes in conserving and enhancing landscape character in England. These assessments are used in component G1b to show changes from 2013 to 2023.

All data, including the full reports and more granular results for each of the 18 broad landscape types underpinning the G1 indicator, are accommodated within the Landscape Change Evidence Hub which brings together the analyses and spatial mapping to provide an overview of changes in landscape character in NCAs and Protected Landscapes.

The National Character Area Profiles website holds the updated profiles for each of the 159 NCAs which provide the supporting analytical context on landscape character for components a, b and c of this indicator.

The Changes in landscape characteristics of NCAs in England Atlas provides interactive access to the supporting analysis for component G1a.

The data for the ‘agri-environment scheme’ theme analysis (2013, 2018 and 2023) for component G1b is published in the LM04150 Monitoring Report on the Defra Science Search portal.

The Change in Visual and Experiential Landscape Character website presents mapped outputs of change in landscape character across England for component G1c.

Indicator components

Figure G1a: Changes in the landscape characteristics of NCAs in England, overall and within and outside of Protected Landscapes, 2015 to 2019

Source

Natural England, Changes in landscape character in England

Unit of Measurement

Percentage of NCAs

Footnotes

Results are based on the total number of NCAs within each extent category. Of the 159 NCAs across England, 74 were deemed to fall within a Protected Landscape and 85 were deemed to fall outside of a Protected Landscape.

Data are not always available for the exact monitoring points of 2015 and 2019. Where there is deviation to reflect data availability, this is recorded in the source publication.

Additional data limitations and caveats are also recorded in the source publication.

NCA change data are evaluated against a set of high-level landscape objectives. The objectives differ according to the landscape type to which an NCA is allocated, to reflect the relevant landscape pressures and opportunities.

For the purposes of establishing high-level trends for this reporting, the detailed evaluation of change allows each NCA to be allocated to one of the following ‘overall’ landscape change categories:
 

Mainly improving – the majority of evidence shows improving trends against objectives 
Some improving – some objectives show little change, but where there is change, there is more evidence of improving trends than declining
Mixed change – less stable than ‘mainly little change’, but some evidence of equal amounts of declining and improving trends
Mainly little change – although there is some evidence of both improving and declining trends, the majority of evidence relates to little change against objectives
Some declining – some objectives show little change, but where there is change, there is more evidence of declining trends than improving
Mainly declining – the majority of evidence shows declining trends against objectives

To understand whether there is a difference in the results between NCAs that are wholly or partly within Protected Landscapes and those that are outside of them, NCAs are analysed as falling within Protected Landscapes if more than 5% of an NCA area is within a Protected Landscape, or an NCA contains a whole Protected Landscape that covers less than 5% of the total NCA area.

While being a relatively low threshold, 5% of an NCA's area is considered enough for a Protected Landscape designation to positively influence the management of important landscape features within an NCA. Remaining NCAs are analysed as falling outside of Protected Landscapes.

More granular results for each of the 18 broad landscape types underpinning this indicator component are available in the Changes in landscape characteristics of NCAs in England Atlas

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Table G1a: Changes in the landscape characteristics of NCAs in England, overall and within and outside of Protected Landscapes, 2015 to 2019

Extent	Mainly declining	Some declining	Mixed change and mainly little change	Some improving	Mainly improving
All NCAs in England	3.77	30.19	6.29	44.65	15.09
NCAs outside Protected Landscapes	4.71	32.94	8.24	42.35	11.76
NCAs within Protected Landscapes	2.70	27.03	4.05	47.30	18.92

Source

Natural England, Changes in landscape character in England

Unit of Measurement

Percentage of NCAs

Footnotes

Results are based on the total number of NCAs within each extent category. Of the 159 NCAs across England, 74 were deemed to fall within a Protected Landscape and 85 were deemed to fall outside of a Protected Landscape.

Data are not always available for the exact monitoring points of 2015 and 2019. Where there is deviation to reflect data availability, this is recorded in the source publication.

Additional data limitations and caveats are also recorded in the source publication.

NCA change data are evaluated against a set of high-level landscape objectives. The objectives differ according to the landscape type to which an NCA is allocated, to reflect the relevant landscape pressures and opportunities.

For the purposes of establishing high-level trends for this reporting, the detailed evaluation of change allows each NCA to be allocated to one of the following ‘overall’ landscape change categories:
 

Mainly improving – the majority of evidence shows improving trends against objectives 
Some improving – some objectives show little change, but where there is change, there is more evidence of improving trends than declining
Mixed change – less stable than ‘mainly little change’, but some evidence of equal amounts of declining and improving trends
Mainly little change – although there is some evidence of both improving and declining trends, the majority of evidence relates to little change against objectives
Some declining – some objectives show little change, but where there is change, there is more evidence of declining trends than improving
Mainly declining – the majority of evidence shows declining trends against objectives

To understand whether there is a difference in the results between NCAs that are wholly or partly within Protected Landscapes and those that are outside of them, NCAs are analysed as falling within Protected Landscapes if more than 5% of an NCA area is within a Protected Landscape, or an NCA contains a whole Protected Landscape that covers less than 5% of the total NCA area.

While being a relatively low threshold, 5% of an NCA's area is considered enough for a Protected Landscape designation to positively influence the management of important landscape features within an NCA. Remaining NCAs are analysed as falling outside of Protected Landscapes.

More granular results for each of the 18 broad landscape types underpinning this indicator component are available in the Changes in landscape characteristics of NCAs in England Atlas

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Trend description for G1a

Between 2015 and 2019, 16% (25 count) of NCAs across the whole of England show a ‘mainly improving’ overall change in landscape character, with a further 44% (70 count) assessed as ‘some improving’. Almost 4% (6 count) of NCAs were assessed as ‘mainly declining’ and 30% (48 count) were assessed as ‘some declining’ in terms of meeting the relevant landscape objectives. The remaining 8% (10 count) were assessed as showing either mixed or mainly little change overall.

Landscape objectives with the most positive trends (the most improving or strongly improving trends) when all landscape types are considered, include those relating to:

reduction and management of conifer plantations for landscape and biodiversity benefits in relevant landscape types; and
conservation and enhancement of traditional orchard habitats as characteristic landscape features strengthening the historic sense of place.

Landscape objectives with the most negative trends (the most ‘declining’ or ‘strongly declining’ trends) when all landscape types are considered, include those relating to:

conservation and enhancement of landscapes for their tranquillity and dark skies where they are under pressure from the potential impacts of development and associated infrastructure;
conservation and enhancement of the field boundary features and patterns that characterise our varied landscapes; and
improving the ecological condition of rivers and canals as important landscape features including habitats, connectivity and cultural significance.

Over the same period (2015 to 2019), 19% of NCAs falling wholly or partly within Protected Landscapes show a ‘mainly improving’ overall change in landscape character. This compares to 13% for NCAs falling outside of Protected Landscapes. The proportion of NCAs showing ‘mainly declining’ and ‘some declining’ change is lower for NCAs within Protected Landscapes (30%) than for those outside of Protected Landscapes (38%).

Landscape objectives with the most positive trends for NCAs within Protected Landscapes include those relating to:

reduction and management of conifer plantations for landscape and biodiversity benefits – looking to restructure and carefully enhance, where appropriate, the broadleaved element of woodland cover. The same trend is found in NCAs falling outside of Protected Landscapes.
conservation and enhancement of traditional orchard habitats as characteristic landscape features strengthening the historic sense of place. The same trend is found in NCAs falling outside of Protected Landscapes; and
conservation and enhancement of the characteristic and historic patterns of woodland, grassland and pasture. Improvements are notably more pronounced than those seen in NCAs falling outside of Protected Landscapes.

Landscape objectives with the most negative trends for NCAs within Protected Landscapes include those relating to:

improvements in the quality and extent of green corridors within the peri-urban landscape, increasing areas of publicly accessible green spaces. This is reversed in NCAs falling outside of Protected Landscapes, where the trends are more positive for this objective; and
conservation and enhancement of landscapes for their tranquillity and dark skies particularly where they are under pressure from the potential impacts of development and associated infrastructure. Declining trends are more pronounced in NCAs falling outside of Protected Landscapes.

Landscape objectives with the most negative trends within NCAs falling outside of Protected Landscapes additionally include those relating to:

conservation and enhancement of the field boundary features and patterns that characterise our varied landscapes. Declining trends are less pronounced in NCAs falling within Protected Landscapes.

Landscape objectives with the most positive trends within NCAs falling outside of Protected Landscapes additionally include those relating to:

increasing opportunities for enjoyment of the landscape and waterscapes, enhancing the network of public spaces, open green space and parks.

Assessment of change

No assessment of change was undertaken for this indicator as a suitable time series is not yet available in the Outcome Indicator Framework.

Figure G1b: The influence of agri-environment schemes in conserving and enhancing landscape character in England, 2013 to 2023

Source

Natural England, Changes in landscape character in England

Unit of Measurement

Percentage of all NCAs

Footnotes

This evidence base assesses the effectiveness of agri-environment schemes, that is, Countryside Stewardship (introduced in 2015) and any remaining Environmental Stewardship schemes, in maintaining and enhancing landscape character, quality and resilience. The 2023 assessment includes the initial introduction of the Sustainable Farming Incentive (part of the new Environmental Land Management schemes), along with existing uptake from Environmental Stewardship and Countryside Stewardship. While there are some differences between agri-environment schemes, the 2023 assessment method is sufficiently aligned with the 2018 assessment and the 2013 baseline to allow a comparison to be made.

The assessment has been undertaken against 8 landscape change themes:

woodland and trees
field patterns and boundary types
agricultural land use
traditional farm buildings
historic environment
semi-natural habitats
coast
water management

Assessment results are judged against a series of landscape thresholds (one for each objective) expressed as the percentage of agri-environment scheme uptake against the landscape feature(s) that the agri-environment scheme options are affecting. The number and importance of the objectives where the threshold is met provide the assessment result for the individual themes, while the sum of the results across all themes provides the overall landscape assessment for that NCA. Overall results are described as neutral, positive or strongly positive (there were no ‘negative’ results identified that were significant enough to influence the assessment).

The source data for this indicator component are updated every 5 years. The next scheduled assessment for 2028 will likely be completed in 2029.

More granular results for this indicator component are available within the NCA Agri-environment Landscape Monitoring Atlas

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Table G1b: The influence of agri-environment schemes in conserving and enhancing landscape character in England, 2013 to 2023

Year	Strongly positive influence	Positive influence	Neutral influence
2013	13.84	63.52	22.64
2018	9.43	50.31	40.25
2023	24.53	58.49	16.98

Source

Natural England, Changes in landscape character in England

Unit of Measurement

Percentage of all NCAs

Footnotes

This evidence base assesses the effectiveness of agri-environment schemes, that is, Countryside Stewardship (introduced in 2015) and any remaining Environmental Stewardship schemes, in maintaining and enhancing landscape character, quality and resilience. The 2023 assessment includes the initial introduction of the Sustainable Farming Incentive (part of the new Environmental Land Management schemes), along with existing uptake from Environmental Stewardship and Countryside Stewardship. While there are some differences between agri-environment schemes, the 2023 assessment method is sufficiently aligned with the 2018 assessment and the 2013 baseline to allow a comparison to be made.

The assessment has been undertaken against 8 landscape change themes:

woodland and trees
field patterns and boundary types
agricultural land use
traditional farm buildings
historic environment
semi-natural habitats
coast
water management

Assessment results are judged against a series of landscape thresholds (one for each objective) expressed as the percentage of agri-environment scheme uptake against the landscape feature(s) that the agri-environment scheme options are affecting. The number and importance of the objectives where the threshold is met provide the assessment result for the individual themes, while the sum of the results across all themes provides the overall landscape assessment for that NCA. Overall results are described as neutral, positive or strongly positive (there were no ‘negative’ results identified that were significant enough to influence the assessment).

The source data for this indicator component are updated every 5 years. The next scheduled assessment for 2028 will likely be completed in 2029.

More granular results for this indicator component are available within the NCA Agri-environment Landscape Monitoring Atlas

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Trend description for G1b

The 2023 assessment has observed an increase in the uptake of agri-environment scheme options and/or actions following decreased levels in 2018, which are likely to result in strongly positive or positive landscape effects. Strongly positive results occur mainly in the north-west and south-west of England, with other clusters of strongly positive NCAs in central western areas. Positive results are found throughout England. There is a large cluster of neutral NCAs around Lancashire, Manchester and Merseyside. There is also a cluster of neutral NCAs around London and to the north of the Thames. There were no ‘negative’ results identified that were significant enough to influence the assessment.

Overall, the results of the 2023 assessment showed that agri-environment schemes were having:

a strongly positive effect on the landscape of 39 NCAs (25%)
a positive effect on the landscape of 93 NCAs (58%)
a neutral effect on the landscape of 27 NCAs (17%)

The previous 2018 assessment found that Countryside Stewardship and Environmental Stewardship schemes were having a strongly positive effect on the landscape of 15 NCAs (9%), a positive effect in 80 NCAs (50%) and a neutral effect in 64 NCAs (40%). The first assessment in 2013 found that Environmental Stewardship schemes were having a strongly positive effect on the landscape of 22 NCAs (14%), a positive effect in 101 NCAs (64%) and a neutral effect in 36 NCAs (23%).

Following a fall away of positive and strongly positive effects on the landscape in 2018, there has been an increase in both of these categories in 2023, with more NCAs assessed as strongly positive in 2023 (39 NCAs) than in 2013 (22 NCAs).

Across the landscape change themes, agri-environment schemes are most frequently having a strongly positive impact on field patterns and boundary types, semi-natural habitats and the coast. When considering both positive and strongly positive landscape impacts, agri-environment schemes are most frequently having a beneficial impact on the semi-natural habitats theme. Agri-environment schemes are having the least beneficial landscape impact in the traditional farm building and water management themes when considering both positive and strongly positive landscape impacts. Agri-environment schemes are having a more beneficial impact on NCAs that are partly or wholly within Protected Landscapes than those outside of Protected Landscapes.

Assessment of change

The percentage of NCAs where agri-environment schemes have had a strongly positive or positive influence on conserving and enhancing landscape character has increased over the medium-term assessment period. There are insufficient data points to make a short-term assessment, and the time series is not yet long enough to make a long-term assessment.

Change since 2018 has also been assessed, and over this period, the percentage of NCAs where agri-environment schemes have had a strongly positive or positive influence on conserving and enhancing landscape character has increased. However, this result is based on only 2 data points so should be considered as indicative and not evidence of a clear trend.

Further information on this assessment, along with details on the methodology, is provided in the Assessment background page. Summaries by 25 Year Environment Plan goal and information on indicator links are presented in the Assessment results pages.

Table G1b: Assessment of change

Component	Subcomponent	Period	Date range	Percentage change	Smoothing function	Assessment of change
G1b	Strongly positive and positive influence	Short term	N/A	N/A	N/A	Not assessed
G1b	Strongly positive and positive influence	Medium term	2013 to 2023	7.32	Unsmoothed	Improvement
G1b	Strongly positive and positive influence	Long term	N/A	N/A	N/A	Not assessed

Note that percentage change refers to the difference seen from the first to last year in the specified date range.

Figure G1c: Spatial changes in visual and experiential landscape character in England, overall and by key attributes of character, 2015 to 2019

Source

Natural England, Changes in landscape character in England

Unit of Measurement

Percentage of total land area

Footnotes

The analysis underpinning this component provides spatial changes in key attributes of landscape that contribute to visual and experiential character. These key attributes of visual and experiential landscape character are defined within 5 themes:

Positive visual (rivers, habitat diversity and buildings greater than 70 metres in height such as cathedrals)
Negative visual (new postcodes, roads and industrial land-use)
Cultural (including scheduled monuments, national trails, canals and open green spaces)
Experiential (noise intensity and remoteness)
Access (green space access, accessible land and footpath access)

The analysis is modelled at fine scale (for example, metres or kilometres) across the whole of England.

The change mapping uses a subset of 21 component indicators taken from a broader spatial indicator which maps landscape character using 32 components. The component indicators selected to report on spatial change were chosen from those aspects which are more likely to alter within a 10-year period.

There were insufficient data available to assess changes to the experiential and access attributes.

More granular results for each of the 18 broad landscape types underpinning this indicator component are available on the Change in Visual and Experiential Landscape Character website.

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Table G1c: Spatial changes in visual and experiential landscape character in England, overall and by key attributes of character, 2015 to 2019

Attribute	Strongly negative	Negative	Little change	Positive	Strongly positive
Access	-	-	-	-	-
Cultural	0.00	0.00	95.59	0.00	4.41
Experiential	-	-	-	-	-
Negative visual	4.91	0.00	95.09	0.00	0.00
Overall	5.00	20.00	55.14	16.30	3.55
Positive visual	5.00	20.00	58.52	13.41	3.07

Source

Natural England, Changes in landscape character in England

Unit of Measurement

Percentage of total land area

Footnotes

The analysis underpinning this component provides spatial changes in key attributes of landscape that contribute to visual and experiential character. These key attributes of visual and experiential landscape character are defined within 5 themes:

Positive visual (rivers, habitat diversity and buildings greater than 70 metres in height such as cathedrals)
Negative visual (new postcodes, roads and industrial land-use)
Cultural (including scheduled monuments, national trails, canals and open green spaces)
Experiential (noise intensity and remoteness)
Access (green space access, accessible land and footpath access)

The analysis is modelled at fine scale (for example, metres or kilometres) across the whole of England.

The change mapping uses a subset of 21 component indicators taken from a broader spatial indicator which maps landscape character using 32 components. The component indicators selected to report on spatial change were chosen from those aspects which are more likely to alter within a 10-year period.

There were insufficient data available to assess changes to the experiential and access attributes.

More granular results for each of the 18 broad landscape types underpinning this indicator component are available on the Change in Visual and Experiential Landscape Character website.

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Trend description for G1c

Between 2015 and 2019, there was a positive change (improvement) in the visual and experiential character of the overall landscape across almost 20% of the land area of England (3.6% strongly positive and 16.3% positive) and there was a negative change (deterioration) across 25% of the land area (5% strongly negative and 20% negative). There was little change in the overall visual and experiential character of the landscape across the remaining 55% of the land area of England between 2015 and 2019. Overall, this equates to a net reduction in the visual and experiential character of the landscape across England.

The positive changes to overall visual and experiential character were driven by an increase in positive visual attributes (mainly due to greater habitat diversity, and some improved river water quality) across 16.5% of the land area of England and strongly positive changes to cultural attributes across 4.4% of England, due to new landscape designations. The negative changes were driven by the combination of a decrease in positive visual attributes (habitat diversity and river water quality) across 25% of the land area of England as well as a further deterioration of negative visual attributes (such as new urban and industrial development) across 4.9% of England.

There was little change to both negative visual and cultural attributes across the vast majority of the country (95.1% and 95.6% respectively) and little change to positive visual attributes across more than half the country (58.5%).

Assessment of change

No assessment of change is undertaken for this indicator as a suitable time series is not available in the Outcome Indicator Framework.

Indicator Metadata

Headline indicator status: Landscapes and waterscapes
Primary goal in the 25 Year Environment Plan: Enhancing beauty, heritage and engagement with the natural environment
Relevant goal(s) in the 25 Year Environment Plan: Enhancing beauty, heritage and engagement with the natural environment
Relevant target(s) in the 25 Year Environment Plan: Safeguarding and enhancing the beauty of our natural scenery and improving its environmental value while being sensitive to considerations of its heritage
Position in the natural capital framework: Condition of assets - freshwater; Condition of assets - land; Condition of assets - marine
Related reporting commitments: This indicator, and associated data will be included in a summary of landscape activities reported to the Council of Europe Landscape Convention.
Geographical Scope: England
Status of indicator development: Interim
First Reported: 2024
Last Updated: 2025
Latest Data: 2023